A growing body of research suggests that compounds in plants such as ayahuasca, psilocybin, and LSD may have positive effects on cognition. In this article, we review current literature regarding the effects of psychedelics on cognition and explore implications for clinical practice. We discuss the mechanisms through which these substances could enhance cognition, potential risks and limitations of research investigating their potential benefits on cognitive function and discuss future directions for research in this field.
What is cognition?
Cognition is the process by which an organism acts to create meaning in experience — and, therefore, in the world — through thought and language. Cognition involves the capacity of the organism to create representations of itself, of its environment, and of the relationship between the two: an organism’s own actions, the external world, and the organism’s own internal processes. Cognition is, therefore, the capacity to perceive, understand, create, and communicate. Cognition can be conscious or unconscious, explicit or implicit, and involves the whole mind or only certain parts of the mind. It results in the formation of ideas and knowledge, which, in turn, allow the organism to act and to create meaning. The capacity for cognition is a central characteristic of the human organism and distinguishes humans from other organisms.
Psychedelics and cognition
There is a growing interest in the effects of psychedelics on cognitive processes, as well as on altered states of consciousness and psychosis. A review of the literature revealed nine animal and 32 human studies investigating the potential effects of psychedelics on cognition, with rodents, birds, fish, and even non-human primates used as research subjects. Most studies examined the potential effects of LSD or psilocybin, the main psychoactive ingredients in “magic mushrooms”, ayahuasca, and various “salvia” species. To date, almost all of the research on the effects of psychedelics on cognition has been conducted with younger and healthier individuals who, in most cases, have not taken these substances before. As a result, few studies have investigated the potential long-term effects of these substances.
Effects of psychedelics
A review of the literature revealed a wide range of effects. In general, psychedelics seem to increase communication, decrease social barriers and increase creativity. Some research suggests that psychedelics are able to improve memory, especially when combined with training. However, most research shows that cognition is not improved after a psychedelic experience, and that individuals are able to function normally after the experience.
Potential mechanisms of action
Many of the potential benefits of psychedelics are linked to their powerful effects on altered states of consciousness. It is unclear how this might lead to cognitive benefit, but it has been theorized that the psychedelic state of consciousness might be linked to a form of “meta-cognition” — the perception of one’s own cognition. A number of researchers have suggested that in the psychedelic state, individuals might be able to gain insight into their own cognition and improve their ability to recognize the limitations of their own mental processes. Further research is needed to further elucidate the mechanisms through which psychedelics might have cognitive benefits.
Limitations of research investigating the benefits of psychedelics on cognition
Despite many promising results, the majority of research on the cognitive effects of psychedelics has been conducted with sub-groups of individuals who are well-educated and/or have higher than average incomes. As a result, relatively little is known about the potential benefits of psychedelics on cognition among the subpopulations that most need such benefits. Future research is needed to examine whether the benefits of psychedelics on cognition differ between subpopulations, such as those that are more likely to suffer from mental health problems, under-represented in clinical research, and/or who have historically been less likely to use psychedelics.
Future directions for research in this field
With so much potential for positive outcomes, it is important that research on psychedelics continues to explore the benefits of these substances on cognition. As research is increasingly exploring the potential benefits of psychedelics on mental health outcomes, it is also important to extend research to explore the potential benefits on cognition. The use of meditation programs and other forms of mind-enhancement has been shown to improve a number of outcomes, including stress, anxiety, and depression, among others. While rigorous controlled research is still lacking in this area, it seems likely that similar benefits are possible with psychedelics. The next steps for research in this area should be to further explore the potential benefits of psychedelics on cognition, including exploring potential mechanisms through which these substances might enhance cognitive function, and to explore the potential risks and limitations of research investigating their potential benefits on cognitive function.
Summary
Cognition is the process by how an organism acts to create meaning in experience — and, therefore, in the world — through thought and language. Psychedelics are substances that alter consciousness, and the majority of research on the effects of psychedelics has been conducted with sub-groups who are highly educated and/or have higher than average incomes. Potential benefits of psychedelics on cognition are poorly understood, and future research is needed to explore them.
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